Hyperventilation, CO₂ Loss, and Serotonin Release"Hyperventilation increases under various stress conditions, and the resulting loss of carbon dioxide raises blood alkalinity, causing platelets to release serotonin. Estrogen stimulation and hypothyroidism are common causes of chronic hyperventilation, with their effect on platelets releasing serotonin and all its harmful consequences." September 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Tissue Response to Stimulation and Oxygen Use"A response to stimulation is the production of more energy, with a proportional increase in oxygen and sugar consumption by the stimulated tissue; this produces more carbon dioxide, which dilates blood vessels in the area and supplies more sugar and oxygen. If the irritation becomes destructive, efficiency is lost: oxygen is either wasted, causing a bluish tint to the tissue (assuming blood flow is maintained; bluish tint can also indicate poor circulation), or it is not used, causing redness of the tissue. Since more sugar is consumed to compensate, lactic acid also dilates the blood vessels." Nutrition For Women |
Adrenal Gland Response to Inflammation and Stress Hormones"When the body senses inflammation or other stress (possibly by detecting changes in blood sugar, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, or all three), the adrenal glands release anti-stress hormones, including adrenaline and cortisone (provided these glands are not exhausted or starved). Both adrenaline and cortisone can raise blood sugar to meet the increased demand." Nutrition For Women |
Enhancing Epsom Salt Baths with Baking Soda for Better Absorption"Since carbon dioxide dissolves best in fat-loving material like the skin, it even moves into the body against a concentration gradient. Adding baking soda to an Epsom salt bath should make it more effective." Nutrition For Women |
Cancer Detection through Metabolic Changes Using Radioactive Fat Tests"Recently, Dr. G. G. Costa and others at the Medical College of Virginia developed a test for cancer diagnosis that likely involves this pregnancy metabolism. The patient is given some radioactive fat, and a person with even very small cancer exhales about three times as much radioactive carbon dioxide. This shows that metabolism already shifts toward fat mobilization at an early stage of cancer development." Nutrition For Women |
Effects of High Body Temperature on Reducing Inflammation"The higher oxygen consumption that occurs at higher body temperature corresponds to a high production of carbon dioxide and inhibition of lactate formation, maintaining a more oxidized balance that reduces inflammation." November 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Prenatal Influences on Brain Development and Adaptability"Experiments over the last 60 years have shown that more or less glucose, carbon dioxide, heat, and progesterone during embryonic and fetal development can influence brain growth as well as how the brain controls future development and adaptability." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Minimizing Stressors and Maximizing Protective Factors"It is important to minimize low-grade stressors and injuries and to optimize protective factors such as light, carbohydrates, thyroid hormone, carbon dioxide, and a sense of a meaningful future." November 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Treatment of New Diseases with Medications Against Altitude Edema"The use of calcium channel blockers and acetazolamide to treat the new disease, due to their therapeutic effect in high-altitude pulmonary edema. He did not mention it, but both drugs can correct the carbon dioxide deficiency in tissues." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Metabolic Interactions of Carbon Dioxide and Altitude Sickness"By neglecting the role of carbon dioxide in suppressing lactate formation, all its other essential metabolic effects are also overlooked, including its role as the factor whose absence leads to the syndromes of altitude sickness." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Connection Between Chronic Metabolic Hyperventilation and Degenerative Diseases"By ignoring that 30 years of slightly elevated lactate levels could lead to cancer or other degenerative diseases, those who taught physiological chemistry also showed little interest in the idea of chronic metabolic hyperventilation – that is, the loss of somewhat too much carbon dioxide even at sea level." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Respiratory Adaptation and Its Effects at Different Altitudes"The fundamental principles of respiration, the Bohr and Haldane effects, describe the physical equilibria of oxygen and carbon dioxide in people adapted to life at different altitudes. The Haldane effect explains that an increased oxygen pressure reduces the amount of carbon dioxide bound to hemoglobin, while a decreased oxygen pressure increases the amount of bound carbon dioxide. In people who adapt, there is a steady increase in retained carbon dioxide with increasing altitude. People who fail to adapt experience a loss of carbon dioxide accompanied by a rise in lactate." May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of Lactate on Oxygen Diffusion and Hypoxia“Lactate increases capillary permeability and fluid loss and reduces oxygen’s ability to diffuse from the alveolus to the erythrocyte. Since carbon dioxide diffuses many times faster than oxygen, this diffusion barrier simultaneously leads to low CO₂ in the blood and hypoxia. Even at sea level, an increase in lactate immediately raises the lung’s diffusion barrier.” May 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress-Induced Exosome Production and Protective Factors“Exosome production during stress is part of the body's normal regenerative function (Zhang et al., 2017); only when protective factors like progesterone and carbon dioxide are lacking does their production become counterproductive.” |
Anti-Excitotoxic Substances and the Importance of the CO₂/Lactate Ratio“Anti-excitotoxic substances include progesterone, memantine, minocycline, and agmatine. A high ratio of CO₂ to lactate, which lowers intracellular pH, is important to prevent excessive excitability. Thyroid hormones increase brain temperature and the progesterone to estrogen ratio, in addition to directly boosting energy production and the CO₂/lactate ratio.” May 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of Maternal Physiology in Regulating the Fetal Environment“The physiology of a healthy mother continuously adjusts intrauterine conditions in interaction with her environment, regulates temperature, supplies oxygen and sugar, regulates carbon dioxide levels and essential nutrients, while excluding important toxins.” March 2021 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Maintaining Protective Factors After Pregnancy Through Oxidative Metabolism“In childhood and adulthood, a strong oxidative metabolism can maintain some of the essential protective factors of pregnancy, including adequate glucose and carbon dioxide levels, good temperature regulation, and avoidance of excessive superoxide and lactate production. Under these conditions, cytokines can contribute to adaptation and ongoing development.” March 2021 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic Development of Carbon Dioxide“Carbon dioxide was once considered a hormone and medically used for ulcers, arthritis, cancer, and mental issues, and the work of Yandell Henderson led to its use as Carbogen (5% CO₂, 95% O₂) for resuscitation. But by mid-century, most therapeutic applications were discontinued, hospitals were instructed to use pure oxygen instead of Carbogen, and patients with brain swelling were hyperventilated with oxygen to lower the carbon dioxide levels in the blood.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of CO₂ on Muscle Contraction and Brain Blood Flow“In the 1950s, Gilbert Ling found that at higher carbon dioxide concentrations, a given stimulus causes less muscle contraction than at lower carbon dioxide concentrations. Around the same time, Russian physiologists discovered that CO₂ produced by active brain cells relaxes the brain’s blood vessels, including capillaries, and increases blood flow proportionally to rising metabolic demands.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Induction Principle in Ling’s Cell Theory“The induction principle, central to Ling’s concept of cell structure and function, is something every student hears early in chemistry studies: the transfer of electron-withdrawing properties of various atoms and groups through connected atoms. Carbon dioxide, a Lewis acid, strongly withdraws electrons from the proteins to which it is adsorbed, thereby increasing their acidity. This influences properties such as contraction and nerve activation as well as oxygen binding and enzyme activity.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Carbon Dioxide, Urea, and Water Regulation“In addition to this fundamental stabilizing and regulating function of carbon dioxide, it combines with ammonia to form urea. Urea, like carbon dioxide, strongly contributes to water regulation by altering its properties. The elimination of ammonia protects against its toxic effects, which also include the generation of pseudohypoxia.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Effects of Carbonic Anhydrase Activation“Stress activates the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which converts the gaseous CO₂ (the form that binds to proteins and favors structured surface or vicinal water) into ionizable carbonic acid or bicarbonate that leaves the cells. Activation of this enzyme raises the intracellular pH and tends to excite cells, while its inhibition lowers intracellular pH, calms cells, and conserves energy.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
A Carbon Dioxide System Perspective on Hormones and Medications“Considering hormones and medications within the carbon dioxide system, rather than the reductionist system of receptor cascades and messengers, makes the organism understandable as a unified system.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Oxidative Processes and Factors of Enzyme Regulation“The oxidative processes that support the targeted, creative functioning of the organism optimize carbon dioxide by inhibiting carbonic anhydrase; this enzyme is inhibited by the thyroid hormone T3, progesterone, urea, caffeine, antipsychotics, and aspirin. Substances that tend to revert to primitive anaerobic energy production activate the enzyme – for example serotonin, tryptophan, cysteine, histamine, estrogen, aldosterone, HIF, SSRIs, angiotensin, and parathyroid hormone.” March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Positive Effects of Various Substances in Healthcare"Like intracellular ATP, an adequate amount of progesterone, T3, urea, and carbon dioxide each have a variety of positive effects, individually and in combination. Together with their synergistic nutritional, botanical, and pharmaceutical substances, their use could fundamentally change the nature of healthcare." March 2020 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Lipolysis intensity and disruption of restorative sleep"The intensity of lipolysis during the night decreases during the most restorative deep sleep, yet free fatty acids themselves tend to increase lactate by blocking the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and suppress glucose metabolism. This creates an inflammatory and excitatory state that disrupts deep sleep." March 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of the lungs in detoxifying serotonin through CO₂"Although the liver has a significantly greater capacity to detoxify serotonin than the lungs, the lungs detoxify multiple times the amount of circulating serotonin compared to the liver. The reason is that in the oxygen-rich environment of the lungs, carbon dioxide is lost from the blood, and carbon dioxide is required for serotonin binding to platelets. With the loss of CO₂, platelets release their serotonin very quickly, so it is immediately detoxified by local MAO." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Ideology and distortion of understanding stress physiology"The ideology surrounding stress physiology, which distorts the importance of serotonin, estrogen, unsaturated fatty acids, sugar, lactate, carbon dioxide, and various other biological molecules, has hidden the simple remedies for most inflammatory and degenerative diseases." July 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of carbon dioxide in stimulating respiration"Every type of cell releases carbon dioxide into the blood proportional to its metabolic rate, and its best-known effect is to stimulate breathing and increase oxygen uptake by the lungs proportional to the metabolic rate." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of CO₂ in stabilizing energy production"Between its formation and exhalation, carbon dioxide is involved in many essential processes, including stabilizing the energy-producing system." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of CO₂ in smooth muscle relaxation and oxygen supply"Since carbon dioxide relaxes smooth muscle, cells that are active and consume oxygen and glucose (producing CO₂ proportionally to their activity) cause nearby blood vessels to relax and expand, thereby providing more oxygen and glucose according to the increased demand." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Reductive stress activates regenerative cellular processes"Reductive stress activates multiple levels of regenerative processes (as alternatives to the protective functions of carbon dioxide) to stimulate respiration, increase blood flow, and provide energy and materials for renewing cellular structures. Prostaglandins, cytokines, estrogen, and nitric oxide are produced in a coordinated manner, and cellular behavior changes defensively. Cytoskeletal structures are modified as reductive chemistry converts protein disulfides into sulfhydryls, altering shapes and – most importantly – the solubility properties of the cell material." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stabilizing Effects of Carbon Dioxide in the Brain"Since carbon dioxide has stabilizing effects in the brain, including relaxing blood vessels, the loss of carbon dioxide leads to vasoconstriction, insufficient supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain, and thus a reduced metabolic rate." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Stress-Induced Changes in Respiration and Their Consequences"Stress alters our breathing and causes a vicious cycle in which lactate and ammonia, produced when stimulation exceeds our oxidative capacity, trigger more intense respiration. This leads to greater loss of carbon dioxide, reduced oxidative efficiency, and further increases in ammonia and lactate formation." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic Potential of CO₂"Given the crucial role of carbon dioxide in maintaining cell integrity, its therapeutic use should receive more attention." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Therapeutic Potentials of Carbon Dioxide Application"The direct application of carbon dioxide is likely helpful in all situations known to benefit from acetazolamide, but without the risk of an allergy to this drug – including traumatic brain edema, altitude sickness, osteoporosis, epilepsy, glaucoma, hyperactivity (ADHD), inflammation, intestinal polyps, and arthritis. Diabetes, cardiomyopathy (Torella et al., 2014), obesity (Arechederra et al., 2013), cancer, dementia, and psychoses are also likely to benefit." July 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Cell-Calming Effect of Sugar Oxidation through Carbon Dioxide Production"The cell-calming effect of sugar oxidation probably relies on the increased production of carbon dioxide and a shift in the electronic balance toward a more oxidized and coherent state." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Lactate in Cancer: Disruptor or Energy Saver?"When cancer metabolism increases the amount of lactate in the blood, enhanced respiration lowers the carbon dioxide content in the blood (Gargaglioni et al., 2003), and the loss of CO₂ affects metabolism and physiology at all levels." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of Increased CO₂ Levels on Cellular Redox Balance and Metabolism"When the CO₂ level is increased, the cell's redox balance shifts toward oxidation (Melnychuk et al., 1977), glucose use for growth and fat synthesis is inhibited, and the Krebs cycle is activated (Melnychuk et al., 1978)." July 2016 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of the Reductive Balance in Cell-Organizing Factors"The reductive balance is an important cell-organizing factor that, for example, controls the conversion of relatively inactive estrone into potent estradiol. (This often begins a vicious cycle of excitation, exhaustion, and degeneration that requires the intervention of stabilizing substances such as carbon dioxide, thyroid hormone, sugar, and progesterone.)" January 2019 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of Progesterone in Energy Processes in the Brain"It seems likely that a fundamental part of progesterone's ability to protect the brain from stress lies in its support of the energy-intensive mitochondrial oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Progesterone Stabilizes Cells and Improves Metabolic Functions"In addition to directly stabilizing internal cell structures, progesterone increases ATP concentration and oxygen consumption, reduces excitatory systems and numerous inflammation-related processes, lowers intracellular calcium concentration, and enhances glucose utilization. This leads to increased carbon dioxide production as well as adaptation of respiration and pH." January 2018 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Lactic Acid in the Brain: More Than a Waste Product"While lactic acid and a more reductive balance in cells activate the excitatory glutamatergic system, an increased concentration of carbon dioxide inhibits this system." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Dual Role of Carbon Dioxide in Oxidative Energy Production"Carbon dioxide is both a product and an activator of oxidative energy production." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Protective Substances Against the Consequences of Impaired Glucose Oxidation"Other substances that protect against the effects of hypoglycemia or impaired glucose oxidation include progesterone, caffeine, certain anesthetics including xenon, niacinamide, agmatine, and carbon dioxide." January 2017 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Effect of Acetazolamide on Respiration"Acetazolamide stimulates respiration by altering carbon dioxide and pH levels." Email Response by Ray Peat |
Adaptation Effects on Lactic Acid Formation and Muscle Efficiency"Adaptation to hypoxia or increased carbon dioxide limits the formation of lactic acid. Muscles are about 50% more efficient in the adapted state; glucose, which produces more carbon dioxide than fat during oxidation, is metabolized more efficiently than fats and requires less oxygen." July 2000 |
The Role of Carbon Dioxide in the Existence of Mitochondria"Could carbon dioxide, a main product of mitochondria, help bring mitochondria into existence in the first place? My answer to that is: yes." July 2000 |
Movement, Free Fatty Acids, and Lactate"Movement increases – similar to aging, obesity, and diabetes – the levels of circulating free fatty acids and lactate. Ordinary, holistic activity, on the other hand, activates the systems in an organized way, increases carbon dioxide production, and improves circulation." July 2000 |
Carbon Dioxide and Lactate Dynamics in Cellular Processes"While the flow of carbon dioxide runs from the mitochondrion into the cytoplasm and beyond and tends to remove calcium from the mitochondrion and the cell, the flow of lactate and other organic ions into the mitochondrion can cause calcium accumulation in the mitochondrion. This occurs under conditions where carbon dioxide synthesis – and thus also urea synthesis – is suppressed and other synthetic processes are altered." July 2000 |
Glycolysis, Pyruvate, and Mitochondrial Function in Cells"Glycolysis produces both pyruvate and lactate, and an excess of pyruvate generates almost the same inhibitory effect as lactate. Since the Crabtree effect involves nitric oxide and fatty acids as well as calcium, I consider it sensible to look for the simplest kind of explanation rather than trying to experimentally track all possible interactions of these substances. A simple physical competition between the products of glycolysis and carbon dioxide for binding sites, such as lysine, would result in a phase change in the mitochondrion." July 2000 |
Glucose, Glycolysis, and Energy Production in Cells"Glucose and apparently also glycolysis are required for the production of nitric oxide as well as for the accumulation of calcium – at least in certain cell types – and these coordinated changes that reduce energy production could be caused by a decrease in carbon dioxide. This would represent a physical state change even more fundamental than the energy level represented by ATP. The use of Krebs cycle substances for the synthesis of amino acids and other products would reduce CO₂ formation and create a situation where the system has two possible states: the glycolytic stress state and the carbon dioxide-producing, energy-efficient state." July 2000 |
The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Mitochondrial Stability"Just as carbon dioxide changes the shapes and electrical affinities of hemoglobin and other proteins, I propose that it increases the stability of the mitochondrial coacervate. This causes it to recruit additional proteins from its external environment as well as from its own synthetic machinery to enlarge both its structure and its functions." July 2000 |
Involvement of Lactic Acid in Mitochondrial Degeneration"With a relative deficiency of carbon dioxide or an excess of alternative dissolved substances and adsorbents like lactic acid, the stability of the mitochondrial phase would decrease, and the mitochondria would degrade both structurally and functionally. As a corollary to the idea that carbon dioxide stabilizes and activates mitochondria, the assumption that lactic acid is involved in mitochondrial degeneration can also be experimentally tested, and it is already supported by a considerable amount of indirect evidence." July 2000 |
High carbon dioxide levels prevent the formation of toxic lactic acid"When the background level of carbon dioxide is high, blood flow and oxygen supply tend to prevent anaerobic glycolysis, which produces toxic lactic acid. This means a certain level of activity can be harmful or beneficial—depending on the carbon dioxide level produced at rest." July 2000 |
Nontoxic therapies for treating lactic acidosis"Therapeutically, even strong toxins that block glycolytic enzymes can improve functions in a variety of organic disorders associated with excessive production of lactic acid (or caused by it). Unfortunately, the toxin that has become the standard treatment for lactic acidosis—dichloroacetic acid—is carcinogenic and causes long-term liver damage and acidosis. However, several nontoxic therapies can achieve the same effects, for example palmitate (which is formed from sugar under the influence of thyroid hormones and is found in coconut oil), vitamin B1, biotin, lipoic acid, carbon dioxide, thyroid hormones, naloxone, and acetazolamide." July 2000 |
The essence of oxidative metabolism: carbon dioxide and metabolic water"The formation of carbon dioxide, along with the formation of metabolic water, is the essence of oxidative metabolism, arising from the interactions of carbon fuel, electrons, and oxygen. Even before carbon dioxide reacts covalently with water to form carbonic acid, it has a strong affinity for electrons. This affinity, which favors its reaction with water and amines, determines its noncovalent adsorptive properties, which are, however, overlooked by most physiologists." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of carbon dioxide in cellular respiration and ion balance"Both spontaneously and enzymatically, carbon dioxide combines with water. Formed within the respiring cell, it continuously leaves the cell as carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate. As it flows out of the cell, every positively charged group, such as a calcium ion, that it carries along will enter the extracellular fluids together with the carbonate or bicarbonate ion, approximately as a pair with equal positive and negative charge. However, the removal of the alkaline metal ion tends to restore the acidic character of the proteins." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of carbon dioxide in cellular ion regulation"The adsorptive effects of carbon dioxide as well as a wide variety of other chemical effects modulate the structure and function of the cell so that it retains significantly more potassium than sodium and is able to excrete calcium while binding magnesium." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Blood pH and the influence of carbon dioxide on cellular alkalinity"This simplified picture of the effects of carbon dioxide on minerals makes it possible to understand the fact that the pH of the blood is higher than that of the cells, as well as many other puzzles, without resorting to special hypothetical constructs. The alkaline metals mobilized from respiring cells in connection with carbonic acid remain alone in the blood when the carbonic acid transforms into gaseous carbon dioxide and leaves the blood in the lungs. Protons – if one wants to speak of them – remain in the cells and are removed from the blood by the reactions of carbon dioxide. However, common descriptions of the higher alkalinity of the blood compared to the cells overlook the background conditions: the intrinsic acidity of the cell material and the forces the cell material exerts on the dissolved substances." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Hypothyroidism, hyperventilation, and a vicious cycle of energy loss"Hypothyroidism suppresses respiration as an energy source, so only a small amount of carbon dioxide is produced and lactic acid forms, even when no obvious stress is present. This resembles hyperventilation itself, since the loss of carbon dioxide is the defining feature of hyperventilation. However, the presence of abnormally increased adrenergic activity and free fatty acids stimulates further hyperventilation and worsens the carbon dioxide loss. Decreasing carbon dioxide further impairs respiration, leading to increased lactic acid production; this in turn stimulates more adrenergic activity and so on – in a vicious cycle." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Estrogen-induced tissue swelling and non-genomic effects"Since these effects of estrogen on tissue water are considered non-genomic and are to some extent independent of the normal estrogen receptors and response elements, presumably every tissue is susceptible to estrogen-induced swelling – as well as to swelling caused by unsaturated fatty acids and a lack of carbon dioxide." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Intracellular acidosis and its cell-protective effects"The inhibition of carbonic anhydrase leads to the retention of carbon dioxide, which can cause acidosis. Intracellular acidosis has many important cell-protective effects. By reducing the ionization of the cell's macromolecules, their affinity for water is decreased." January 2000 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Cellular Energy and Heat Production"The concentration of carbon dioxide influences the structural energy content of the protein-water system, and this effect can explain many of the mysteries of cellular heat production well, including the negative heat observed in certain phases of nerve and muscle activity." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Effects of CO₂ Loss on Brain Blood Flow and the Effects of Hyperventilation"The loss of carbon dioxide reduces brain blood flow and produces complex paresthesias as well as stroke symptoms. Hyperventilation is a relative term referring to the amount of carbon dioxide lost from the blood. Heavy, rapid breathing at high altitude or in a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere does not necessarily constitute hyperventilation." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Crucial Role of Carbon Dioxide in Regulating Water, Proteins, and Minerals"Water, proteins, oxygen, and minerals are all critically regulated by carbon dioxide. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase, regulated by hormones (including parathyroid hormone) and nerves, accelerates the exchange between carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, each of which has specific functions. Bicarbonate is more soluble in water, while carbon dioxide is more soluble in living tissue and fats." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Limiting Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Overexcitation of Nerves and Muscles"Carbon dioxide limits the electrical depolarization of nerves and muscles – a phenomenon first described by Gilbert Ling. This prevents overexcitation and exhaustion of brain and muscle cells, including the heart. The presence of carbon dioxide also limits the formation of lactic acid. This explains the lactate paradox during physical exertion at high altitude." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Hyperventilation Experiment: Muscle Cramps and Altered Blood pH"Simple hyperventilation causes muscle cramps and paresthesias (tingling of the skin) – an experiment anyone can perform in a few minutes. When a large amount of carbon dioxide is exhaled, the blood pH rises only slightly due to systemic adjustments." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Excitotoxic Damage and the Protective Role of Carbon Dioxide"Histamine release, nitric oxide, and carbon monoxide are extensively involved in excitotoxic damage, and carbon dioxide also acts protectively against these processes." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Degenerative Diseases"In addition to the simple excitotoxic death of nerve cells, the processes that impair carbon dioxide production trigger a long-lasting degenerative process ranging from diabetic lactic acidosis to dementia." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Alzheimer's Disease: Respiratory Brain Metabolism and CO₂ Deficiency"In Alzheimer's disease, the brain's respiratory metabolism is inhibited, resulting in a deficiency of carbon dioxide with an excess of lactic acid and ammonia." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Koch's findings on clotting and carbon dioxide"W. F. Koch also noted that excessive clotting occurred in the toxic anti-respiratory state. Carbon dioxide is—probably through controlling calcium availability—an important protective factor against abnormal blood clotting." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Connection between lactic acid, CO₂, and degenerative brain diseases"If an excess of lactic acid in brain tissue is characteristic of Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis, then the lactate paradox suggests that a slightly higher retention of carbon dioxide in the brains of Kashmir residents would counteract chronic excitotoxic effects. This would suppress the stress metabolism that leads to degenerative brain diseases." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Neuroprotection against excitotoxicity and excess intracellular calcium"The neuroprotective steroids progesterone and pregnenolone, as well as magnesium and carbon dioxide, all protect against excitotoxicity and the associated excess of intracellular calcium, while simultaneously promoting normal calcification." December 1999 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
The role of carbon dioxide in regulation and energy production"Carbon dioxide is heavily involved in regulating both sodium and calcium, as well as respiration and energy production. It tends to relax both nerves and muscles. Obviously, it is one of the essential factors in preventing edema." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
ATP and the role of CO₂ in regulating hemoglobin and proteins"Both ATP and CO₂ bind to hemoglobin and thereby regulate its affinity for oxygen. The way they bind to this protein suggests that they also bind to many other intracellular proteins and regulate their functions in a similar manner." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Carbon dioxide as a protective factor in cerebral hypoxia"In many situations, including brain hypoxia, carbon dioxide is the critical protective factor." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
Sodium retention and carbon dioxide in hypothyroidism"A low thyroid function is associated with reduced carbon dioxide production, and body fluids do not retain as much sodium as in healthy individuals. Both urine and sweat tend to contain abnormally high sodium concentrations in hypothyroidism. Since CO₂ is centrally involved in pH regulation and the excretion of hydrogen ions (acidic urine) is a mechanism of sodium retention, the CO₂ deficiency in hypothyroidism is likely closely related to the inability to retain sufficient sodium." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 4 |
The Influence of Carbon Dioxide on Biological Structures and pH"Carbonated water is so commonplace that chemists are almost embarrassed to talk about it. All water in breathing organisms contains a considerable amount of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide binds to proteins and other amine-containing polymers and dissolves in water, lowering the pH, so the interactions between polymers and water are strongly influenced by the CO₂ concentration. Carbon dioxide alters biological materials and structures in and around our cells." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The Protective Role of Carbon Dioxide in Efficient Respiration"Whenever respiration occurs, carbon dioxide is produced. By maintaining the effective concentration of Krebs cycle material, it protects the efficiency of respiration." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The Solubility of Carbon Dioxide and Its Movement into Living Tissue"Carbon dioxide is very soluble in water, but in living tissue it is even more soluble—so much so that it moves from a low concentration in bath water into the body, where its concentration is already significantly higher." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The Reaction of Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia in Urea Formation"Carbon dioxide reacts spontaneously with ammonia as well as with other amines. The reaction of ammonia with carbon dioxide is the first step in the formation of urea and protects against the potential toxicity of ammonia." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The Binding of Carbon Dioxide to Insulin and the Effects of Thyroid Hormones"Although carbon dioxide likely associates with most amino groups in the body, only a few of these reactions have been studied. For example, it is known to bind to insulin and influence its conformation. I think this probably explains some of the effects of thyroid hormone in diabetes, as the thyroid increases the production of carbon dioxide." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
Carbon Dioxide as an Expectorant Affecting Mucopolysaccharides"The simplest way to imagine the effect of carbon dioxide on mucopolysaccharides is to consider its effect as an expectorant, where the viscosity of bronchial mucus is reduced so that it can be reabsorbed or expelled. Since iodide also has a long history of use as an expectorant, we should compare the effects of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid with the effects of iodide in other situations." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The Role of Carbon Dioxide in Eye Health and the Prevention of Cataracts"The transparent structures of the eye are interesting areas to observe the effects of carbon dioxide. I believe that carbon dioxide plays a role in maintaining the clarity of the lens, as I explained in the newsletter on cataracts, by preventing swelling." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The contribution of hypothyroidism to the development of glaucoma"That hypothyroidism, which leads to a replacement of carbon dioxide by lactic acid, could contribute to the development of glaucoma by increasing the viscosity of the aqueous humor." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The decongestant effect of carbon dioxide on the cornea"In experimenters wearing gas-tight protective goggles, as well as in scraped corneas kept in tissue culture, it was found that carbon dioxide has a decongestant effect on the cornea." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The inhibition of connective tissue aging by carbon dioxide"With aging, connective tissue hardens due to chemical cross-linking of large molecules. When amino groups are well saturated with carbon dioxide, this type of reaction should be inhibited." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The role of carbon dioxide in preventing edema and water retention"The water-saturated state observed during shock or stress in blood vessels, lungs, and other organs, as well as brain edema and lens cataracts that follow various metabolic disorders, seem to be associated with the uptake of free water, while bound (non-freezable) water is lost. Carbon dioxide appears to promote the retention of bound water and protect against edematous conditions." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
The thyroid hormone as a promoter of carbon dioxide formation"The thyroid hormone is the most important promoter of carbon dioxide formation." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 3 |
Macromolecular charge and the influence of pH and CO₂ on proteins"The overall charge of proteins and other macromolecules generally depends on the pH of their environment. Typically, cellular proteins have a negative charge above a pH of 5. The ionization of chemical groups such as hydroxyl, amino, and sulfhydryl groups is responsible for the overall charge. The degree of oxidation or reduction affects the number of sulfhydryl groups, and the structural state of the protein also influences the charge. At high pH, the charge is high, and the number and arrangement of sulfhydryl groups can affect the charge. The presence of small ions, carbon dioxide, and oxygen also influences the charge of proteins. When the entire living system is considered, bioelectricity interacts with other electron-related phenomena, including oxidation-reduction processes, pH, donor-acceptor reactions, and free radical reactions." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
The role of oxygen in cellular acidification and edema regulation"Oxygen that produces carbon dioxide acidifies the cell, and carbon dioxide influences the cell's handling of water. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are often used to regulate conditions associated with edema, including acclimatization to high altitudes." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
pH increase in muscles due to lactic acid formation"During intense contraction, especially when oxygen and carbon dioxide are limited, muscles produce lactic acid, and the specific reaction forming lactic acid consumes protons, meaning the pH rises." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
The cellular acidifying effects of carbon dioxide and ATP"Carbon dioxide produced during respiration and the hydrolysis of ATP are two strong acidifiers of the cell; with sufficient stimulation, both can likely act simultaneously, and in this situation, the pH drop tends to counteract the excitatory stimulus." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
The role of CO₂ in calcium distribution"Sufficient CO₂ is closely involved in the distribution of calcium." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
High altitude and lactic acid metabolism in stress and cancer"Under all examined conditions, the lactic acid metabolism typical of stress and cancer is suppressed at high altitude because respiration becomes more efficient. The Haldane effect shows that carbon dioxide retention is increased at high altitude." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
The Haldane effect and the lactate paradox"The Haldane effect refers to the fact that hemoglobin releases oxygen in the presence of carbon dioxide and releases carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen. The increased retention of carbon dioxide is responsible for the lactate paradox." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
Sodium and carbon dioxide loss during stress"Sodium and carbon dioxide are essential for maintaining normal fields, and these substances interact in a way that causes both to be lost during stress. In hypothyroidism, sodium is permanently lost as carbon dioxide is chronically replaced by lactic acid. Both sodium (Veech et al.; Garrahan and Glynn) and carbon dioxide – by stimulating the Krebs cycle and keeping respiratory enzymes active – help maintain normal ATP levels and thus protect against stress and shock." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
Supportive interventions for fundamental organizational fields"The safest and most effective interventions will be those that support our fundamental organizational fields (for example sodium, carbon dioxide, balanced proteins, fruits, thyroid, pregnenolone) and do not introduce distortions, as some medications, foods, hormones, and supplements do." 1998 – Ray Peat's Newsletter – 2 |
The impact of hyperventilation on tissue respiration"In hyperventilation, so much carbon dioxide is lost through breathing that tissue respiration is impaired, resulting in partial tissue suffocation." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Oxygen consumption without sufficient carbon dioxide production"When cells consume oxygen without producing enough carbon dioxide, a situation arises similar to hyperventilation or tissue suffocation." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Low blood sugar and respiratory quotient in hypothyroidism"Low blood sugar, most often caused by hypothyroidism, as well as diabetes—which involves poor sugar uptake by cells—both tend to lower the respiratory quotient, that is, the amount of carbon dioxide produced relative to the oxygen consumed." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Carbon dioxide inhalation in psychiatry and metabolism"The use of carbon dioxide inhalation in psychiatry has many metabolic justifications, one of which could be the importance of carbon dioxide for glucose regeneration. It is also essential for the detoxification of ammonia." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Treatment of scleroderma with thyroid, magnesium, and progesterone"Men diagnosed with scleroderma have reported to me that their symptoms improved through the use of thyroid and magnesium supplements, Epsom salt baths, as well as topical progesterone and vitamin E. I suspect that the carbon dioxide produced in the mitochondria is the main factor in removing calcium from them." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Carbon dioxide supplements reduce remaining lactate production"It has been experimentally shown that carbon dioxide supplements reduce the remaining lactate production." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Schmitt's theory on dinosaur extinction and CO₂ emissions"Roman Schmitt proposed that 66 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct and mammals began their rapid evolution, hydrothermal degassing went out of control and released enormous amounts of carbon dioxide and other substances into the atmosphere." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
Internal carbon dioxide production and brain development"In times of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, our Krebs cycle continues to produce it internally, and the rapid development of the brain during pregnancy utilizes the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the womb." 1997 – Ray Peat's Newsletter |
